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Coconut Palm
Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	[[Angiosperm]]
(unranked):	Monocots[1]
(unranked):	Commelinids
Order:	Arecales
Family:	Arecaceae
Subfamily:	Arecoideae
Tribe:	Cocoeae
Genus:	Cocos
Species:	C. nucifera
Binomial name
Cocos nucifera L.

Coconut germinating on Black Sand Beach, Island of Hawaii

Natural habitat of the coconut palm tree

The coconut (Cocos nucifera) is an important member of the family Arecaceae (palm family). It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos,^[2] and is a large palm, growing to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long, and pinnae 60–90 cm long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the trunk smooth. The term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which is not a botanical nut. The spelling cocoanut is an old-fashioned form of the word.^[3]

The coconut palm is grown throughout the tropics for decoration, as well as for its many culinary and non-culinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm can be utilized by humans in some manner. In cooler climates (but not less than USDA Zone 9), a similar palm, the queen palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana), is used in landscaping. Its fruits are very similar to the coconut, but much smaller. The queen palm was originally classified in the genus Cocos along with the coconut, but was later reclassified in Syagrus. A recently discovered palm, Beccariophoenix alfredii from Madagascar, is nearly identical to the coconut, and more so than the queen palm. It is cold-hardy, and produces a coconut lookalike in cooler areas.^[4]

The coconut has spread across much of the tropics, probably aided in many cases by seafaring people. Coconut fruit in the wild is light, buoyant and highly water resistant, and evolved to disperse significant distances via marine currents.^[5] Fruit collected from the sea as far north as Norway are viable.^{[citation needed]} In the Hawaiian Islands, the coconut is regarded^{[by whom?]} as a Polynesian introduction, first brought to the islands by early Polynesian voyagers from their homelands in Oceania. They are now almost ubiquitous between 26°N and 26°S except for the interiors of Africa and South America.

The flowers of the coconut palm are polygamomonoecious, with both male and female flowers in the same inflorescence. Flowering occurs continuously. Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although some^[which?] dwarf varieties are self-pollinating. The meat of the coconut is the edible endosperm, located on the inner surface of the shell. Inside the endosperm layer, coconuts contain an edible clear liquid that is sweet, salty, or both.

The Indian state of Kerala is known as the Land of coconuts. The name derives from "Kera" (the coconut tree) and "Alam" ( "place" or "earth"). Kerala has beaches fringed by coconut trees, a dense network of waterways, flanked by green palm groves and cultivated fields. Coconuts form a part of daily diet, the oil is used for cooking, coir is used for furnishing, decorating, etc.

Coconuts received the name from Portuguese explorers, the sailors of Vasco da Gama in India, who first brought them to Europe. The brown and hairy surface of coconuts reminded them of a ghost or witch called Coco.^[6] Before it was called nux indica, name given by Marco Polo in 1280 while in Sumatra, name taken from the Arabs who called it jauz-al-Hindi. When coconuts arrived in England, they retained the coco name and nut was added.

[edit] Origins

The origins of this plant are the subject of debate.^{[citation needed]}

• Most authorities claim it is native to South Asia (particularly the Ganges Delta), while others claim its origin is in northwestern South America.
• Fossil records from New Zealand indicate that small, coconut-like plants grew there as long as 15 million years ago.
• Even older fossils have been uncovered in Karnataka, Rajasthan, Thennai in Kerala on the banks of River Palar, Then-pennai, Thamirabharani, Cauvery and Mountain sides at Kerala borders, Konaseema-Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra (India)
• The oldest known so far in Khulna, Bangladesh.
• Mention is made of coconuts in the 2nd–1st centuries BC in the Mahawamsa of Sri Lanka. The later Culawamsa states that King Aggabodhi I (575–608) planted a coconut garden of 3 yojanas length, possibly the earliest recorded coconut plantation.

[edit] Etymology

The OED states: "Portuguese and Spanish authors of the 16th c. agree in identifying the word with Portuguese and Spanish coco 'grinning face, grin, grimace', also 'bugbear, scarecrow', cognate with cocar 'to grin, make a grimace'; the name being said to refer to the face-like appearance of the base of the shell, with its three holes. Historical evidence favors the European origin of the name, for there is nothing similar in any of the languages of India, where the Portuguese first found the fruit; and indeed Barbosa, Barros, and Garcia, in mentioning the Malayalam name tenga, and Canarese narle, expressly say 'we call these fruits quoquos', 'our people have given it the name of coco', 'that which we call coco, and the Malabars temga'."

[edit] Natural habitat

The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of salinity. It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (150 cm to 250 cm annually), which makes colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward.^[7] Coconuts also need high humidity (70–80%+) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity, like the Mediterranean, even where temperatures are high enough (regularly above 24°C or 75.2°F).

Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are intolerant of cold weather. Optimum growth is with a mean annual temperature of 27 °C (81 °F), and growth is reduced below 21 °C (70 °F). Some seasonal variation is tolerated, with good growth where mean summer temperatures are between 28–37 °C (82–99 °F), and survival as long as winter temperatures are above 4–12 °C (39–54 °F); they will survive brief drops to 0 °C (32 °F). Severe frost is usually fatal, although they have been known to recover from temperatures of −4 °C (24.8 °F).^[7] They may grow but not fruit properly in areas where there is not sufficient warmth, like Bermuda.

The conditions required for coconut trees to grow without any care are:

• mean daily temperature above 12-13 °C every day of the year
• 50 year low temperature above freezing
• mean yearly rainfall above 1000 mm
• no or very little overhead canopy, since even small trees require a lot of sun

The main limiting factor is that most locations which satisfy the first three requirements do not satisfy the fourth, except near the coast where the sandy soil and salt spray limit the growth of most other trees (Palmtalk^[8]).

The range of the natural habitat of the coconut palm tree is delineated by the red line in map C1 to the right (based on information in Werth 1933,^[9] slightly modified by Niklas Jonsson).

[edit] Coconut tree climbers

In India Kerala is the land of coconuts. In Kerala coconut tree climbers are Ezhava. They are also known as Thandan. Now the lack of coconut tree climbers are affecting the cultivation of coconut trees.

[edit] Cultivation

Coconut trees are very hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated; fruit also tends to be shed.^[7]

Coconut palms are grown in more than 80 countries of the world, with a total production of 61 million tonnes per year.^[10]

Top ten coconut producers — 19 December 2009
Country	Production (tonnes)	Footnote
Philippines	19,500,000	*
Indonesia	15,319,500
India	10,894,000
Brazil	2,759,044
Sri Lanka	2,200,000	F
Thailand	1,721,640	F
Mexico	1,246,400	F
Vietnam	1,086,000	A
Papua New Guinea	677,000	F
Malaysia	555,120
Tanzania	370,000	F
World	54,716,444	A
No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure, A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official or estimates); Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division

A coconut plantation in La Digue, Seychelles

A tilted coconut tree

Coconut and copra output in 2005

[edit] Harvesting

In some parts of the world (Thailand and Malaysia), trained pig-tailed macaques are used to harvest coconuts. Training schools for pig-tailed macaques still exist both in southern Thailand, and in the Malaysian state of Kelantan.^[11] Competitions are held each year to find the fastest harvester.

[edit] Pests and diseases

[edit] Diseases

Coconuts affected by eriophyid mites, at Taliparamba, Kannur, Kerala, India

Coconuts are susceptible to the phytoplasma disease Lethal Yellowing. One recently selected cultivar, 'Maypan', has been bred for resistance to this disease.

[edit] Pests

The coconut palm is damaged by the larvae of many Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species which feed on it, including Batrachedra spp: B. arenosella, B. atriloqua (feeds exclusively on Cocos nucifera), B. mathesoni (feeds exclusively on Cocos nucifera), and B. nuciferae.

Brontispa longissima (the "coconut leaf beetle") feeds on young leaves and damages seedlings and mature coconut palms. On September 27, 2007, Philippines' Metro Manila and 26 provinces were quarantined due to having been infested with this pest (to save the $800-million Philippine coconut industry).^[12]

The fruit may also be damaged by eriophyid coconut mites (Eriophyes guerreronis). This insect infests coconut plantations, and is devastating: it can destroy up to 90% of coconut production. The immature nuts are infested and desapped by larvae staying in the portion covered by the perianth of the immature nut; the nuts then drop off or survive deformed. Spraying with wettable sulfur 0.4% or with neem-based pesticides can give some relief, but is cumbersome and labour intensive.

In Kerala the main pests of coconut are the coconut mite, the rhinoceros beetle, the red Palm weevil and the coconut leaf caterpillar. Research on this topic has as of 2009^[update] produced no results, and researchers from the Kerala Agricultural University and the Central Plantation Crop Research Institute, Kasaragode are still searching for a cure. The Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University has developed an innovative extension approach called compact area group approach (CAGA) to combat coconut mites.

[edit] India

Traditional areas of coconut cultivation in India are the states of Kerala,Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Pondicherry, Maharashtra and Islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar.

Kerala is the largest coconut growing state in India, and is famous for the most tender coconuts in India.^{[citation needed]} They are also famous for the coconut-based products like tender coconut water, copra, coconut oil, coconut cake, coconut toddy, coconut shell-based products, coconut wood-based products, coconut leaves, and coir pith.

Four southern states put together account for 92% of the total production in the country (Kerala 45.22%, Tamil Nadu 26.56%, Karnataka 10.85%, Andhra Pradesh 8.93% and other states 8.44%). ^[13]

Coconut is cultivated mainly in the following Indian States

• Kerala (All India Production 45%)
• Tamil Nadu (All India Production 27%)
• Karnataka (All India Production 11%)
• Andhra pradesh (All India Production 9%)
• Other States like Goa, Maharashtra, Orisa and West Bengal

Coconut Trees in the House near the Backwaters of Kerala

Sunset amidst Coconut Trees, in the backwaters of Kerala

Coconut palms growing well at Gizella Kopsick Palm Arboretum, St. Petersburg, FL

[edit] United States of America

The only states in the U.S. where coconut palms can be grown and reproduced outdoors without irrigation are Hawaii and south Florida. Coconut palms will grow from coastal Pinellas County and St. Petersburg southwards on Florida's west coast, and Melbourne southwards on Florida's east coast. The occasional coconut palm is seen north of these areas in favored microclimates in the Tampa and Clearwater metro area and around Cape Canaveral, as well as the Orlando-Kissimmee-Daytona Beach metro area. They may likewise be grown in favored microclimates in the Rio Grande Valley area of Deep South Texas near Brownsville and on Galveston Island. They may reach fruiting maturity, but are damaged or killed by the occasional winter freezes in these areas. While coconut palms flourish in south Florida, unusually bitter cold snaps can kill or injure coconut palms there as well. Only the Florida Keys and the coastlines provide safe havens from the cold for growing coconut palms on the U.S. mainland.^{[citation needed]} The farthest north in the United States a coconut palm has been known to grow outdoors is in Newport Beach, California along the Pacific Coast Highway. For coconut palms to survive in Southern California, they need sandy soil and minimal water in the winter to prevent root rot, and would benefit from root heating coils.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Middle East

The main coconut producing area in the Middle East is the Dhofar region of Oman. In particular, the area around Salalah maintains large coconut plantations similar to those found across the Arabian Sea. The large coconut groves of Dhofar were mentioned by the medieval Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta in his writings, known as Al Rihla.^[14] This is possible due to an annual rainy season known locally as Khareef.

Coconuts also are increasingly grown for decorative purposes along the coasts of the UAE and Saudi Arabia with the help of irrigation. The UAE have, however, imposed strict laws on mature coconut tree imports from other countries to reduce the spread of pests to other native palm trees, such as the date palm.^[15]

[edit] Plant

[edit] Fruit

Illustration of a coconut tree

The coconut tree

A germinating coconut

A coconut tree in Cuba

Layers of the coconut fruit

Botanically the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut.^[16] Like other fruits it has three layers: exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The exocarp and mesocarp together make up the husk, and the mesocarp is composed of fibers called coir. Coconuts sold in the shops of non-tropical countries often have had the husk removed. The endocarp or shell is the hardest part of the coconut. The shell has three germination pores (stoma) or eyes that are clearly visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed.

[edit] Seed

Within the shell is a single seed. When the seed germinates, the root (radicle) of its embryo pushes out through one of the eyes of the shell. The outermost layer of the seed, the testa, adheres to the inside of the shell. In a mature coconut, a thick albuminous endosperm adheres to the inside of the testa. This endosperm or meat is the white and fleshy edible part of the coconut. Coconuts sold with a small portion of the husk cut away are immature, and contain coconut water rather than meat.

Although coconut meat contains less fat than many oilseeds and nuts such as almonds, it is noted for its high amount of medium-chain saturated fat.^[17] About 90% of the fat found in coconut meat is saturated, a proportion exceeding that of foods such as lard, butter, and tallow. There has been some debate as to whether or not the saturated fat in coconuts is less unhealthy than other forms of saturated fat (see coconut oil). Like most nut meats, coconut meat contains less sugar and more protein than popular fruits such as bananas, apples and oranges. It is relatively high in minerals such as iron, phosphorus and zinc.

The endosperm surrounds a hollow interior space, filled with air and often a liquid referred to as coconut water (distinct from coconut milk). Young coconuts used for coconut water are called tender coconuts: when the coconut is still green, the endosperm inside is thin and tender, and is often eaten as a snack, but the main reason to pick the fruit at this stage is to drink its water. The water of a tender coconut is liquid endosperm. It is sweet (mild) with an aerated feel when cut fresh. Depending on its size a tender contains 300 to 1,000 ml of coconut water.

The meat in a young coconut is softer and more gelatinous than a mature coconut, so much so, that it is sometimes known as coconut jelly. When the coconut has ripened and the outer husk has turned brown, a few months later, it will fall from the palm of its own accord. At that time the endosperm has thickened and hardened, while the coconut water has become somewhat bitter.

When the coconut fruit is still green, the husk is very hard, but green coconuts only fall if they have been attacked by molds, etc. By the time the coconut naturally falls, the husk has become brown, the coir has become drier and softer, and the coconut is less likely to cause damage when it drops, although there have been instances of coconuts falling from palms and injuring people, and claims of some fatalities. This was the subject of a paper published in 1984 that won the Ig Nobel Prize in 2001. Falling coconut deaths are often used as a comparison to shark attacks; the claim is often made that a person is more likely to be killed by a falling coconut than by a shark, yet, there is no evidence of people ever being killed in this manner.^[18]

When viewed on end, the endocarp and germination pores give the fruit the appearance of a coco (also Côca), a Portuguese word for a scary witch from Portuguese folklore, that used to be represented as a carved vegetable lantern, hence the name of the fruit.^[19] The specific name nucifera is Latin for nut-bearing.

A small number of writings about coconut mention the existence of the coconut pearl due to the rarity of the gem.^[20] Reginald^[20] mentions in his book a few publishings whose author purposely avoided discussion about the vegetable-gem.

The shell composition is shown in the tables below.

[edit] Roots

Unlike some other plants, the palm tree has neither tap root nor root hairs; but has a fibrous root system.^[21]

[edit] Inflorescence

On the same inflorescence, the palm produces both the female and male flowers; thus the palm is monoecious.^[21]

[edit] Uses

The coconut palm yields up to 75 fruits per year^{[citation needed]}. Nearly all parts of the palm are useful, and it has significant economic value.

The versatility of the coconut palm has given rise to names in many languages.In Sanskrit it is kalpa vriksha, which translates as "the tree which provides all the necessities of life". In the Malay language, the coconut is known as pokok seribu guna, "the tree of a thousand uses". In the Philippines, the coconut is commonly given the title "Tree of Life".^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Flower

Coconut Flower and Kerala Marriage

Coconut flowers

• In Kerala in South India, coconut flowers must be present during a marriage ceremony.
• The flowers are inserted into a barrel of unhusked rice (paddy) and placed within the sight of the wedding ceremony.
• Those who visit the marriage in the Kerala State will be able to see and understand the importance given to the Coconut Flower.

[edit] Husk

In Thailand, the coconut husk is used as a potting medium because of its cost-effectiveness to produce healthy forest tree saplings. The process of husk extraction from the coir bypasses the retting process, using a custom-built coconut husk extractor designed by ASEAN-Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre (ACFTSC) in 1986. Fresh husks contains more tannin than old husks. Tannin produces negative effects on sapling growth.^[22]

In India, the coconut husk is used extensively in the manufacture of coir, which is subsequently used in the production of rope, as well as household products like door mats and sacks.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Shell

In India, coconut shells are used as bowls and in the manufacture of various crafts products, including buttons. In certain parts of South India, the shell and husk also are burned for smoke to repel mosquitoes. Coconut shell is sometimes used to 'ward away the evil eye' in South India.

Coconut shell buttons.

[edit] Culinary

Culinary uses of the various parts of the coconut include:

• The nut provides oil for cooking and making margarine.
• The white, fleshy part of the seed, the coconut meat, is edible and used fresh or dried in cooking.

[edit] Coconut water

A relatively young tender-coconut with a straw, to drink the coconut water.

• The cavity is filled with coconut water, which is sterile until opened. It also mixes easily with blood, so for these reasons it was used during World War II as an emergency transfusion liquid for patients who had lost a lot of blood.^{[citation needed]}

• It contains sugar, fiber, proteins, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals, and provides an isotonic electrolyte balance, making it a highly nutritious food source. It is used as a refreshing drink throughout the humid tropics, and is also used in isotonic sports drinks. It can also be used to make the gelatinous dessert nata de coco. Mature fruits have significantly less liquid than young immature coconuts, barring spoilage.

[edit] Coconut milk

• Coconut milk is made by processing grated coconut with hot water or milk, which extracts the oil and aromatic compounds. It should not be confused with coconut water, and has a fat content around 17%.^{[citation needed]} When refrigerated and left to set, coconut cream will rise to the top and separate from the milk. The milk is used to produce virgin coconut oil by controlled heating and removing the oil fraction. Virgin coconut oil is found superior to the oil extracted from copra for cosmetic purposes.^{[citation needed]}
• The leftover fiber from coconut milk production is used as livestock feed.

[edit] Toddy and nectar

• The sap derived from incising the flower clusters of the coconut is drunk as neera, or fermented to produce palm wine, also known as "toddy" or, in the Philippines, tuba. The sap can be reduced by boiling to create a sweet syrup or candy, too.
• Coconut nectar is an extract from the young bud, a very rare type of nectar collected and used as morning break drink in the islands of Maldives, and is reputed to have energetic power, keeping the "raamen" (nectar collector) healthy and fit even over 80 or 90 years old. A by-product, a sweet honey-like syrup called dhiyaa hakuru is used as a creamy sugar for desserts.

[edit] "Millionaire's Salad" and coconut sprout

• Apical buds of adult plants are edible, and are known as"palm-cabbage" or heart-of-palm. They are considered a rare delicacy, as the act of harvesting the buds kills the palms. Hearts of palm are eaten in salads, sometimes called "millionaire's salad".
• Newly germinated coconuts contain an edible fluff of marshmallow-like consistency called coconut sprout, produced as the endosperm nourishes the developing embryo.

[edit] Philippines and Vietnam

• In the Philippines, rice is wrapped in coconut leaves for cooking and subsequent storage; these packets are called puso.

• In Vietnam, coconut is grown mainly in Ben Tre Province, often called the "land of the coconut". It is used to make candy, caramel and jelly.
• Coconut juice and coconut milk are used in many dishes, especially in Vietnam's Southern style of cooking, e.g.kho, chè, etc.

Illustration of a coconut tree

[edit] India

A mature coconut's interior after breaking the coconut

South Indian dish - Idli and Coconut Chutney

• In Kerala, most dishes include coconut. The most common way of cooking vegetables is to scrape coconut and then steam the vegetables with coconut and spices after frying in a little oil. Dishes that include scraped coconut are generally referred to as "thoran", while dishes without scraped coconut belong to the class "Mezhukku purratti".
• People from Kerala also make a wide variety of "chamandis" which involve grinding the coconut meat with salt, chillies, and various whole spices. The "chamandi" can then be eaten with rice or kanji (rice gruel).
• The coconut meat is also used as a snack and is eaten with jaggery or molasses.
• "Puttu" is a culinary delicacy from Kerala, in which layers of coconut alternate with layers of powdered rice, all of which fit into a bamboo stalk. In recent times this has been replaced with steel or aluminium tubes, which is then steamed over a pot.
• Daily at least one coconut "tamil:தேங்காய்" is broken in the middle class families in Tamil Nadu for using in their food preparations.
• Invariably the main side dish served with Idli, Vada, and Dosa is coconut chutney.
• Coconut is mixed and ground with other spices for sambar and other lunch dishes.

[edit] Industrial and commercial use

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[edit] Coir

• Coir (the fiber from the husk of the coconut) is used in ropes, mats, brushes, caulking boats and as stuffing fiber; it is also used extensively in horticulture for making potting compost.
• Coir is used for making mattresses at Kerala, in India. Tamil Nadu stands first in the manufacture of brown fiber, and is second to Kerala in the fiber production in India. The total number of coir industries in Tamil Nadu is 5,399; employing 52,648 directly and 20,192 indirectly, of whom 52,810 are women and 20,030 are men.^[23]

Rural women processing coir threads at Kerala, India

[edit] Coconut leaves

• Coconut leaves are used for making brooms in India. And Guyana as the green of the leaves are stripped away leaving the vein (a wooden-like, thin, long strip)that are usually called pointers in Guyana that when tied together form a broom.
• The leaves provide materials for baskets and roofing thatch.
• The leaves can be woven to create effective roofing materials, or reed mats.
• Leaves were woven together into a basket that could be used for drawing water from a well.
• Another indeginous use of leaves (especially the younger, yellowish shoots) is by weaving two leaves into a shell to the size of the palm and infill with rice - also known as "ketupat" in Malay archipelago.
• Dried coconut leaves can be burned to ash, which can be harvested for lime.
• The stiff leaflet midribs can be used to make cooking skewers, kindling arrows, or are bound into bundles, brooms and brushes.
• The mid-rib of the coconut leaf is used as a tongue-cleaner in Kerala.
• In India, particularly in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the woven coconut leaves are used as 'pandals' (temporary sheds) for the marriage functions.

[edit] Copra

Coconuts sundried for making copra, used for coconut oil at Kerala, India

A wall made from coconut husks

Extracting the fiber from the husk (Sri Lanka)

Copra is the dried meat of the seed and, after further processing, is a source of low grade coconut oil. Coconut oils are used to make soap.

Plant densities in Vanuatu for copra production are generally 9 meter, allowing a tree density of 100–160 trees per hectare.

[edit] Husks and shells

• The husk and shells can be used for fuel and are a good source of charcoal.
• Dried half coconut shells with husks are used to buff floors. In the Philippines, it is known as "bunot", and in Jamaica it is simply called "coconut brush"
• "Tempurung" as it is called in Malay language, used as soup dish and if fixed with a handle will become a ladle.
• Activated carbon manufactured from coconut shell is considered^{[by whom?]} superior to those obtained from other sources, mainly because of small macropores structure which renders it more effective^{[weasel words]} for the adsorption of gas/vapor and for the removal of color, oxidants, impurities and odor of compounds.
• Half coconut shells are used in theatre Foley sound effects work, banged together to create the sound effect of a horse's hoofbeats.
• In the Philippines, dried half shells are used as a music instrument in a folk dance called maglalatik, a traditional dance about the conflicts for coconut meat within the Spanish era
• Shirt buttons can be carved out of dried coconut shell. Coconut buttons are often used for Hawaiian Aloha shirts.
• Dried half coconut shells are used as the bodies of musical instruments, including the Chinese yehu and banhu, along with the Vietnamese đàn gáo and Arabo-Turkic rebab.
• In World War II, coastwatcher scout Biuki Gasa was the first of two from the Solomon Islands to reach the shipwrecked, wounded, and exhausted crew of Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109 commanded by future U.S. president John F. Kennedy. Gasa suggested, for lack of paper, delivering by dugout canoe a message inscribed on a husked coconut shell. This coconut was later kept on the president's desk, and is now in the John F. Kennedy Library.
• The husk(when burnt)repels mosquitoes.

[edit] Coconut trunk

• Coconut trunks are used for building small bridges; they are preferred for their straightness, strength and salt resistance. In Kerala (India), coconut trunks are also used for house construction.
• Coconut timber comes from the trunk, and is increasingly being used as an ecologically-sound substitute for endangered hardwoods. It has several applications, particularly in furniture and specialized construction, notably in Manila's Coconut Palace.
• Hawaiians hollowed the trunk to form drums, containers, or even small canoes.
• The "branches" (leaf petioles) are strong and flexible enough to make a switch. The use of coconut branches in corporal punishment was revived in the Gilbertese community on Choiseul in the Solomon Islands in 2005.^[24]

[edit] Coconut roots

• The roots are used as a dye, a mouthwash, and a medicine for dysentery. A frayed-out piece of root can also be used as a toothbrush.

[edit] Use for worship

• In the Ilocos region of northern Philippines, the Ilokano people fill two halved coconut shells with diket (cooked sweet rice), and place liningta nga itlog (halved boiled egg) on top of it. This ritual is known as niniyogan (niyog means coconut in Ilokano), and is an offering made to the deceased, and one's past ancestors. This accompanies the palagip (prayer to the dead). This rememberance-ritual may be witnessed widely in Hawaii, where Ilokano migrants have made a strong presence and influence on local Hawaii culture, and on Filipino culture as a whole.
• A coconut (Sanskrit: narikela) is an essential element of several rituals in Hindu tradition, and often is decorated with bright metal foils and other symbols of auspiciousness.
• It is offered during worship to a Hindu god or goddess. Irrespective of their religious affiliation, fishermen of India often offer it to the rivers and seas in the hopes of having bountiful catches.
• In Hindu wedding ceremonies, a coconut is placed over the opening of a pot, representing a womb.
• Hindus often initiate the beginning of any new activity by breaking a coconut to ensure the blessings of the gods and successful completion of the activity.
• The Hindu goddess of well-being and wealth, Lakshmi, is often shown holding a coconut.^[25]
• The coconut holds a very important role in the day to day life of Indians. In particular at South India, for all the functions, where ever there is any kind of prayer take place, there, the Hindus, keep the coconut and banana, along with other 'Pooja' materials, and break open the coconut and after that only any kind of Pooja / prayers / activities will be started.
• In the Temple Town Palani, before going for the worship of God Murugan, at the foot hills of Palani Hills, for the Ganesha, a coconut will be broken at the place where it is marked for that purpose. Every day, thousands of coconuts are broken, and some devotees break even 108 coconuts at a time as per the prayer.
• In tantric practices, coconuts are sometimes used as substitutes for human skulls.

Coconut used at the time of Kaveri River worship at Tiruchirappalli, India

[edit] Decoration

• The Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club of New Orleans traditionally throws hand decorated coconuts—the most valuable of all Mardi Gras souvenirs—to parade revelers. The "Tramps" began the tradition ca. 1901. In 1987, a "coconut law" was signed by Gov. Edwards exempting from insurance liability any decorated coconut handed from a Zulu float.

Making a rug from coconut fiber

Coconut Trees in Goa, India

[edit] Other usages

• Sport fruits are also harvested, primarily in the Philippines, where they are known as macapuno. They are sold in jars as "gelatinous mutant coconut" cut into balls or strands.
• The smell of coconuts comes from the 6-pentyloxan-2-one molecule, known as delta-decalactone in the food and fragrance industry.^[26]
• Coconut is also commonly used as a traditional remedy in Pakistan to treat bites from rats.^{[citation needed]}
• The dried calyx of the coconut is used as fuel in wood fired stoves.
• The fresh husk of a brown coconut is also used as a dish sponge or as a body sponge.
• The inners are removed and the cases used to display food, such as fruit, for gifts in traditional rituals.

[edit] Shelter and tools

Researchers from the Melbourne Museum in Australia observed the octopus species Amphioctopus marginatus' use of tools, specifically coconut shells, for defense and shelter. The discovery of this behavior, observed in Bali and North Sulawesi in Indonesia between 1998 and 2008, was published in the journal Current Biology in December 2009.^[27][28][29] Amphioctopus marginatus is the first invertebrate known to be able to use tools.^[28][30]

A coconut can be hollowed out and used as a home for a rodent or small birds. Halved, drained coconuts can also be hung up as bird feeders, and after the flesh has gone, can be filled with fat in winter to attract tits.

[edit] See also

• Coconut candy
• Coconut charcoal
• Coir Board of India
• Maypan coconut palm
• Queen palm Similar palm originally classified in the Cocos genus as well as coconut
• Voanioala gerardii – forest coconut, the closest relative of the modern coconut
• Beccariophoenix alfredii - Closest lookalike to the Coconut, but hardier to cold and frost.

[edit] References

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cocos nucifera

• Coconut Varieties Endemic to Sri Lanka
• Coconut Time Line
• Plant Cultures: botany, history and uses of the coconut
• Purdue University crop pages: Cocos nucifera
• Coconut
• Cocos nucifera information from the Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR)
• Descriptors for Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)
• Coconut Research Center
• P. Batugal, V. R. Rao and J. Oliver (2005). Coconut Genetic Resources. COGENT (International Coconut Genetic Resources Network) – IPGRI (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute). http://www.bioversityinternational.org/Publications/pubfile.asp?ID_PUB=1112.



Chemical structure of decyl glucoside, a plant-derived glucoside used as a surfactant.

A glucoside is a glycoside that is derived from glucose. Glucosides are common in plants, but rare in animals. Glucose is produced when a glucoside is hydrolysed by purely chemical means, or decomposed by fermentation or enzymes.

The name was originally given to plant products of this nature, in which the other part of the molecule was, in the greater number of cases, an aromatic aldehydic or phenolic compound (exceptions are sinigrin and jalapin or scammonin). It has now been extended to include synthetic ethers, such as those obtained by acting on alcoholic glucose solutions with hydrochloric acid, and also the polysaccharoses, e.g. cane sugar, which appear to be ethers also. Although glucose is the most common sugar present in glucosides, many are known which yield rhamnose or iso-dulcite; these may be termed pentosides. Much attention has been given to the non-sugar parts (aglyca) of the molecules; the constitutions of many have been determined, and the compounds synthesized; and in some cases the preparation of the synthetic glucoside effected.

The simplest glucosides are the alkyl ethers which have been obtained by reacting hydrochloric acid on alcoholic glucose solutions. A better method of preparation is to dissolve solid anhydrous glucose in methanol containing hydrochloric acid. A mixture of alpha- and beta-methylglucoside results.

Classification of the glucosides is a matter of some intricacy. One method based on the chemical constitution of the non-glucose part of the molecules has been proposed that posits four groups: (I) alkyl derivatives, (2) benzene derivatives, (3) styrolene derivatives, and (4) anthracene derivatives. A group may also be constructed to include the cyanogenic glucosides, i.e. those containing prussic acid. Alternate classifications follow a botanical classification, which has several advantages; in particular, plants of allied genera contain similar compounds. In this article the chemical classification will be followed, and only the more important compounds will be discussed herein.

[edit] Ethylene Derivatives

These are generally mustard oils, which are characterized by a burning taste; their principal occurrence is in mustard and Tropaeolum seeds. Sinigrin, or the potassium salt of inyronic acid not only occurs in mustard seed^[1] but also in black pepper and in horseradish root. Hydrolysis with baryta, or decomposition by the ferment myrosin, gives glucose, allyl mustard oil and potassium hydrogen sulfate. Sinalbin occurs in white pepper; it decomposes to the mustard oil, glucose and sinapin, a compound of choline and sinapic acid. Jalapin or scammonin occurs in scammony; it hydrolyses to glucose and jalapinolic acid.

[edit] Benzene Derivatives

These are generally oxy and oxyaldehydic compounds. Arbutin, which occurs in bearberry along with methyl arbutin, hydrolyses to hydroquinone and glucose. Pharmacologically it acts as a urinary antiseptic and diuretic; the benzoyl derivative, cellotropin, has been used for tuberculosis. Salicin, also termed saligenin and glucose occurs in the willow. The enzymes ptyalin and emulsin convert it into glucose and saligenin, ortho-oxybenzylalcohol. Oxidation gives the aldehyde helicin. Populin, which occurs in the leaves and bark of Populus tremula, is benzoyl salicin.

There are a number of glucosides found in the flavonoids chemical family.

[edit] Styrolene Derivatives

This group contains a benzene and also an ethylene group, being derived from styrolene. Coniferin, C₁₆H₂₂O₈, occurs in the cambium of conifer wood. Emulsin converts it into glucose and coniferyl alcohol, while oxidation gives glycovanillin, which yields with emulsin, glucose and vanillin. Syringin, which occurs in the bark of Syringa vulgaris, is a methoxyconiferin. Phloridzus occurs in the root-bark of various fruit trees; it hydrolyses to glucose and phloretin, which is the phloroglucin ester of paraoxyhydratropic acid. It is related to the pentosides naringin, C₂₇H₃₂O₁₄, which hydrolyses to rhamnose and naringenin, the phioroglucin ester of para-oxycinnamic acid, and hesperidin, which hydrolyses to rhamnose and hesperetin, the phloroglucin ester of meta-oxy-para-methoxycinnamic acid or isoferulic acid, C₁₀H₁₀O₄.

• Aesculin (C₂₁H₂₄O₁₃), occurring in horse-chestnut and California buckeye,^[2] and daphnin, occurring in Daphne alpina, are isomeric; the former hydrolyses to glucose and aesculetin (C₉H₆O₄ — 6,7-dihydroxycoumarin), the latter to glucose and daphnetin (7,8-dihydroxycoumarin).
• Fraxin, occurring in Fraxinus excelsior, and with aesculin, hydrolyses to glucose and fraxetin, 7,8-dihydroxy-6-methoxycoumarin.
• Flavone or benzo-7-pyrone derivatives are numerous; in many cases they (or the non-sugar part of the molecule) are vegetable dyes.
• Quercitrin is a yellow dyestuff found in Quercus velutina;^[3] it hydrolyses to rhamnose and quercetin, a dioxy-~3-phenyl-trioxybenzoy-pyrone.
• Rhamnetin, a splitting product of the glucosides of Rhamnus, is monomethyl quercetin; fisetin, from Rhus cotinus, is monoxyquercetin; chrysin is phenyl-dioxybenzo--y-pyrone.
• Saponarin, a glucoside found in Saponaria officinalis, is a related compound.
• Strophanthin is the name given to two different compounds, g-strophanthin (= ouabain) obtained from Strophanthus gratus and k-strophanthin from Stroph. kombé.

[edit] Anthracene Derivatives

These are generally substituted anthraquinones; many have medicinal applications, being used as purgatives, while one, ruberythric acid, yields the valuable dyestuff madder, the base of which is alizarin. Chrysophanic acid, a dioxymethylanthraquinone, occurs in rhubarb, which also contains emodin, a trioxymethylanthraquinone; this substance occurs in combination with rhamnose in Frangula bark.

The most important cyanogenetic glucoside is amygdalin, which occurs in bitter almonds. The enzyme maltase decomposes it into glucose and mandelic nitrile glucoside; the latter is broken down by emulsin into glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid. Emulsin also decomposes amygdalin directly into these compounds without the intermediate formation of mandelic nitrile glucoside.

Several other glucosides of this nature have been isolated. The saponins are a group of substances characterized by forming a lather with water; they occur in soap-bark. Mention may also be made of indican, the glucoside of the indigo plant; this is hydrolysed by the indigo ferment, indimulsiri, to indoxyl and indiglucin.

[edit] Line notes

[edit] References

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.



Lauramide DEA, the major component of cocamide DEA

Cocamide DEA, or cocamide diethanolamine, is a diethanolamide made by reacting the mixture of fatty acids from coconut oils with diethanolamine.^[1] It is a viscous liquid and is used as a foaming agent in bath products like shampoos and hand soaps, and in cosmetics as an emulsifying agent. See cocamide for the discussion of the lengths of carbon chains in the molecules in the mixture. The chemical formula is CH₃(CH₂)_nC(=O)N(CH₂CH₂OH)₂, where n can vary depending on the source of fatty acids.

[edit] Safety

Cocamide DEA is an allergen that may cause contact dermatitis in individuals who are susceptible to skin allegeries.^[2] Cocamide DEA showed a high irritation potential.^[3]

[edit] Notes

[edit] See also

• Cocamide MEA
• List of cosmetic ingredients



Cocamidopropyl betaine
IUPAC name[hide] {[3-(dodecanoylamino)propyl] (dimethyl)ammonio}acetate
Identifiers
CAS number	86438-79-1
SMILES	[show] CCCCCCCCCCCC(=O)NCCC[N+](C)(C)CC(=O)[O-]
Properties
Molecular formula	C19H38N2O3
Molar mass	342.52 g/mol
Density	x.xxx g/cm3
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references

Cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB) is a synthetic surfactant derived from coconut oil and dimethylaminopropylamine.^[1] It is a zwitterionic chemical compound with a quaternary ammonium cation. It is a viscous pale yellow transparent liquid and is used as a surfactant in bath products such as shampoos and hand soaps, and in cosmetics as an emulsifying agent and thickener, and to reduce irritation purely ionic surfactants would cause. It also serves as an antistatic agent in hair conditioners.

Cocamidopropyl betaine is a derivate of cocamide and glycine betaine (a form of betaine). See cocamide for the discussion of the length of carbon chain in the molecule.

Cocamidopropyl betaine is a medium strength surfactant which most often does not irritate skin or mucous membranes. That said, some studies indicate it is an allergen.^[2][3][4] It also has antiseptic properties, making it suitable for personal sanitary products. It is compatible with other cationic, anionic, and nonionic surfactants.

Cocamidopropyl betaine to a significant degree has replaced cocamide DEA. Cocamidopropyl betaine is the active ingredient in Johnson & Johnson's Baby wash.

[edit] Specification

CAPB is obtained as an aqueous solution in concentrations of about 30%.

• Active ingredient 29.5 – 32.5%
• Water 62 – 66%
• NaCl 4.6 – 5.6%

Typical impurities of leading manufacturers today:

• Sodium monochloroacetate < 5 ppm
• Amidoamine (AA) < 0.3%
• dimethylaminopropylamine (DMAPA) < 15 ppm
• Glycerol < 3%

However, there are qualities in the market with up to 3% AA.

The impurities AA and DMAPA are most critical, as they have been shown to be responsible for skin sensitation reactions. These by-products can be avoided by a moderate excess chloroacetate and the exact adjustment of pH value during betainization reaction accompanied by regular analytical control.

[edit] Safety

CAPB has been claimed to cause allergic reactions in some users,^[2][3][4] but a controlled pilot study has found that these cases may represent irritant reactions rather than true allergic reactions.^[5] Furthermore, results of human studies have shown that CAPB has a low sensitizing potential if impurities with amidoamine (AA) and dimethylaminopropylamine (DMAPA) are low and tightly controlled.^[6][7] Other studies have concluded that most apparent allergic reactions to CAPB are more likely due to amidoamine.^[1][8] Cocamidopropyl betaine was voted 2004 Allergen of the Year by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.^[9]

[edit] See also

• Cocamidopropyl hydroxysultaine

[edit] References

1. ^ ^{a b} Foti C, Bonamonte D, Mascolo G, Corcelli A, Lobasso S, Rigano L, Angelini G. The role of 3-dimethylaminopropylamine and amidoamine in contact allergy to cocamidopropylbetaine. Contact Dermatitis. 2003 Apr;48(4):194-8. PMID 12786723 full textPDF (92.0 KiB)
2. ^ ^{a b} de Groot AC, van der Walle HB, Weyland JW. Contact allergy to cocamidopropyl betaine. Contact Dermatitis. 1995 Dec;33(6):419-22. PMID 8706401
3. ^ ^{a b} Brand R, Delaney TA. Allergic contact dermatitis to cocamidopropylbetaine in hair shampoo. Australas J Dermatol. 1998 May;39(2):121-2. PMID 9611386
4. ^ ^{a b} Mowad CM.Cocamidopropyl betaine allergy. Am J Contact Dermat. 2001 Dec;12(4):223-4. PMID 11753899
5. ^ Shaffer KK, Jaimes JP, Hordinsky MK, Zielke GR, Warshaw EM. Allergenicity and cross-reactivity of coconut oil derivatives: A double-blind randomized controlled pilot study. Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of Minnesota, MN, USA. Dermatitis. 2006 Jun;17(2):71-6. PMID 16956456
6. ^ Fowler JF Jr, Zug KM, Taylor JS, Storrs FJ, Sherertz EA, Sasseville DA, Rietschel RL, Pratt MD, Mathias CG, Marks JG, Maibach HI, Fransway AF, Deleo VA, Belsito DV. Allergy to cocamidopropyl betaine and amidoamine in North America. Dermatitis. 2004 Mar;15(1):5-6. PMID 15573641
7. ^ Korting HC, Parsch EM, Enders F, Przybilla B. Allergic contact dermatitis to cocamidopropyl betaine in shampoo. Department of Dermatology, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1992 Dec;27(6 Pt 1):1013-5. PMID 1479082
8. ^ Fowler JF, Fowler LM, Hunter JE, Allergy to cocamidopropyl betaine may be due to amidoamine: a patch test and product use test study. Family & Occupational Dermatology, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky 40202, USA. Contact Dermatitis. 1997 Dec;37(6):276-81. PMID 9455630
9. ^ https://www.entrepreneur.com/tradejournals/article/149265914.html

[edit] External links

• Environmental Working Group: Safety reviews of common ingredients



E550 redirects here. For the Italian locomotive, see FS Class E550

Sodium silicate
IUPAC name[hide] Sodium metasilicate
other names[hide] Waterglass Liquid glass E550
Identifiers
CAS number	6834-92-0 Y, 10213-79-3 (pentahydrate) 13517-24-3 (nonahydrate)
PubChem	23266
EC number	229-912-9
RTECS number	VV9365000
Properties
Molecular formula	Na2SiO3
Molar mass	122.06 g/mol (anhydrous) 212.14 g/mol (pentahydrate)
Appearance	colorless solid
Density	2.4 g/cm3, solid
Melting point	1088 °C (anhydrous) 72.2 °C (pentahydrate)
Solubility in water	Soluble
Refractive index (nD)	1.52 (anhydrous) 1.456 (pentahydrate)
Thermochemistry
Std enthalpy of formation ΔfHo298	−1519 kJ/mol
Standard molar entropy So298	113.8 J K−1 mol−1
Hazards
MSDS	Mallinckrodt Baker, Inc.
EU Index	014-010-00-8
EU classification	Corrosive (C)
R-phrases	R34, R37
S-phrases	(S1/2), S13, S24/25, S36/37/39, S45
NFPA 704	0 2 0
Related compounds
Other anions	Sodium carbonate Sodium germanate Sodium stannate Sodium plumbate
Other cations	Potassium silicate
Y (what is this?)  (verify) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references

Sodium silicate is the common name for a compound sodium metasilicate, Na₂SiO₃, also known as water glass or liquid glass. It is available in aqueous solution and in solid form and is used in cements, passive fire protection, refractories, textile and lumber processing, and automobiles. Sodium carbonate and silicon dioxide react when molten to form sodium silicate and carbon dioxide^[1]:

Na₂CO₃ + SiO₂ → Na₂SiO₃ + CO₂

Anhydrous sodium silicate contains a chain polymeric anion composed of corner shared {SiO₄} tetrahedra, and not a discrete SiO₃²⁻ ion^[1]. In addition to the anhydrous form there are a number of hydrates with the formulae Na₂SiO₃.nH₂O (where n= 5, 6, 8, 9) which contain the discrete approximately tetrahedral anion SiO₂(OH)₂²⁻ with water of hydration e.g. the commercially available sodium silicate pentahydrate, Na₂SiO₃.5H₂O is formulated Na₂SiO₂(OH)₂.4H₂O and the nonahydrate, Na₂SiO₃.9H₂O is formulated Na₂SiO₂(OH)₂.8H₂O .^[2]

[edit] Properties

Sodium silicate is a white powder that is readily soluble in water, producing an alkaline solution. It is one of a number of related compounds which include sodium orthosilicate, Na₄SiO₄; sodium pyrosilicate, Na₆Si₂O₇, and others. All are glassy, colourless and dissolve in water.

Sodium silicate is stable in neutral and alkaline solutions. In acidic solutions, the silicate ion reacts with hydrogen ions to form silicic acid, which when heated and roasted forms silica gel, a hard, glassy substance.

[edit] CAS registry number and EINECS number

Each and every substance has its own unique CAS registry number and EINECS number. The CAS No. and EINECS No. of Sodium silicate and other related substances are:

^[3]

[edit] Uses

[edit] Metal repair

Sodium silicate is used, along with magnesium silicate, in muffler repair and fitting paste. When dissolved in water, both sodium silicate, and magnesium silicate form a thick paste that is easy to apply. When the exhaust system of an internal combustion engine heats up to its operating temperature, the heat drives out all of the excess water from the paste. The silicate compounds that are left over have glass-like properties, making a somewhat permanent, brittle repair.

[edit] Automotive repair

Sodium silicate can be used to seal leaks at the head gasket. A common use is when an alloy cylinder head engine is left sitting for extended periods or the coolant is not changed at proper intervals, electrolysis can "eat out" sections of the head causing the gasket to fail.

Rather than remove the cylinder head, "liquid glass" is poured into the radiator and allowed to circulate. The waterglass is injected via the radiator water into the hotspot at the engine. This technique works because at 210–220 °F the sodium silicate loses water molecules to form a very powerful sealant that will not re-melt below 1500 °F.

A sodium silicate repair of a leaking head gasket can hold for up to two years and even longer in some cases. The effect will be almost instant, and steam from the radiator water will stop coming out the exhaust within minutes of application. This repair only works with water-to-cylinder or water-to-air applications and where the sodium silicate reaches the "conversion" temperature of 210–220 °F.

[edit] Car engine disablement

Sodium silicate solution is used to inexpensively, quickly, and permanently disable automobile engines. Running an engine with two quarts of a sodium silicate solution instead of motor oil causes the solution to precipitate, catastrophically damaging the engine's bearings and pistons within a few minutes.^[4] In the United States this procedure is required by the Car Allowance Rebate System (CARS) program.^[4][5]

[edit] Aquaculture

Sodium silicate gel is also used as a substrate algal growth in aquaculture hatcheries.

[edit] Food preservation

Sodium silicate was also used as an egg preservation agent in the early 20th Century with large success. When fresh eggs are immersed in it, bacteria which cause the eggs to spoil are kept out and water is kept in. Eggs can be kept fresh using this method for up to nine months. When boiling eggs preserved this way, it is well advised to pin-prick the egg to allow steam to escape because the shell is no longer porous.

An article in The Mother Earth News offers test results for this and other methods of preservation. LINK

[edit] Timber treatment

The use of sodium silicate as a timber treatment for pressure-treated wood began some time in the 19th century. It is suggested that that more costly "silicate of potash" (potassium silicate) may also be used, in "Handy Farm Devices and How to Make Them" by Rolfe Cobleigh, published in 1910. Since 1998 scientists have researched methods for rendering sodium silicate insoluble once the lumber has been treated with it. With or without the additional process, treating wood with sodium silicate preserves wood from insects and possesses some flame-retardant properties.

[edit] Passive fire protection (PFP)

Expantrol proprietary sodium silicate suspended in 1/4" thick layer of red rubber, type 3M FS195, inserted into a metal pipe, then heated, to demonstrate hard char intumescence, strong enough to shut a melting plastic pipe

Palusol based intumescent plastic pipe device used for commercial firestopping.

Sodium silicates are inherently intumescent. They come in prill (solid beads) form, as well as the liquid, water glass. The solid sheet form (Palusol) must be waterproofed to ensure longterm passive fire protection.

Standard, solid, bead form sodium silicates have been used as aggregate within silicone rubber to manufacture plastic pipe firestop devices. The silicone rubber was insufficient waterproofing to preserve the intumescing function and the products had to be recalled, which is problematic for firestops that are concealed behind drywall in buildings.

Pastes for caulking purposes are similarly unstable. This too has resulted in recalls and even litigation. Only 3M's "Expantrol" version, which has an external heat treatment that helps to seal the outer surface, as part of its process standard, has achieved sufficient longevity to qualify for DIBt approvals in the US for use in firestopping.

Not unlike other intumescents, sodium silicate, both in bead form and in liquid form are inherently endothermic, due to liquid water in the water glass and hydrates in the prill form. The absence in the US of mandatory aging tests, whereby PFP systems are made to undergo system performance tests after the aging and humidity exposures, are at the root of the continued availability, in North America, of PFP products that can become inoperable within weeks of installation. Indiscriminate use of sodium silicates without proper waterproofing measures are contributors to the problems and risk. When sodium silicates are adequately protected, they function extremely well and reliably for long. Evidence of this can be seen in the many DIBt approvals for plastic pipe firestop devices using Palusol, which use waterproofed sodium silicate sheets.

[edit] Refractory use

Water glass is a useful binder of solids, such as vermiculite and perlite. When blended with the aforementioned lightweight aggregates, water glass can be used to make hard, high-temperature insulation boards used for refractories, passive fire protection and high temperature insulations, such as moulded pipe insulation applications. When mixed with finely divided mineral powders, such as vermiculite dust (which is common scrap from the exfoliation process), one can produce high temperature adhesives. The intumescence disappears in the presence of finely divided mineral dust, whereby the waterglass becomes a mere matrix. Waterglass is inexpensive and abundantly available, which makes its use popular in many refractory applications.

[edit] Water treatment

Water glass is used as a water treatment in waste water treatment plants. Waterglass will bind to heavier molecules and drag them out of the water.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Detergent Auxiliaries

It also can be used in Detergent Auxiliaries like Complex Sodium Disilicate and modified sodium disilicate.

[edit] Magic crystals

Water glass was used in the magic crystal garden toys from the 1980s. When waterglass was combined with a selection of different metals in solution, the waterglass would cause the metals to precipitate. Each metal would precipitate separately causing a different color stalagmite.

An early mention of crystals of metallic salts forming a "chemical garden" in sodium silicate is found in the 1946 Modern Mechanix magazine [1]. This results in very colorful gardens—much more than shown in the illustrations.

In Europe the ingredients for such chemical gardens were available already around the early 1930s. Interestingly enough, one could buy these at better flower shops in Budapest, Hungary.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Dye auxiliary

Sodium silicate solution is used as a fixative for hand dyeing with reactive dyes that require a high pH in order to react with the textile fiber. After the dye is applied to a cellulose-based fabric, such as cotton or rayon, or onto silk, it is allowed to dry, after which the sodium silicate is painted on to the dyed fabric, covered with plastic to retain moisture, and left to react for an hour at room temperature. ^[6]

[edit] See also

• Fireproofing

[edit] References

1. ^ ^{a b} Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997), Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0080379419 
2. ^ Wells A.F. (1984) Structural Inorganic Chemistry 5th edition Oxford Science Publications ISBN 0-19-855370-6
3. ^ http://ecb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/esis/
4. ^ ^{a b} Helliker, Kevin. "The Killer App for Clunkers Breathes Fresh Life Into 'Liquid Glass'" The Wall Street Journal, 4 August 2009.
5. ^ http://www.cars.gov/files/disposal-salvage/engine-disablement-procedures.pdf
6. ^ Burch, Paula (March 22 2010). "Sodium silicate as a fixative for dyeing". http://www.pburch.net/dyeing/FAQ/sodium_silicate.shtml. Retrieved March 22 2010. 

[edit] External links

• Centre Européen d'Etudes des Silicates
• International Chemical Safety Card 1137
• Sodium silicate Physical and Chemical Properties
• sodium silicate



Sodium hexametaphosphate[1]
other names[hide] Calgon S; Glassy sodium; Graham's Salt; Hexasodium metaphosphate; Metaphosphoric acid, hexasodium salt
Identifiers
CAS number	10124-56-8 Y
Properties
Molecular formula	(NaPO3)6
Molar mass	611.77 g/mol
Appearance	White, odorless, crystalline powder
Density	2.484 g/cm3
Melting point	550 °C
Boiling point	1500 °C
Solubility in water	soluble
Solubility in organic solvents	insoluble
Hazards
MSDS	External MSDS
EU Index	Not listed
Main hazards	Irritant
Flash point	Non-flammable
LD50	3053 mg/kg
Related compounds
Other anions	Trisodium phosphate Tetrasodium pyrophosphate Pentasodium triphosphate
Related compounds	Sodium trimetaphosphate
Y (what is this?)  (verify) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references

Sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) is a hexamer of composition (NaPO₃)₆.^[2] Sodium hexametaphosphate of commerce is typically a mixture of polymeric metaphosphates, of which the hexamer is one, and is usually the compound referred to by this name. It is more correctly termed sodium polymetaphosphate. It is prepared by melting monosodium orthophosphate, followed by rapid cooling. SHMP hydrolyzes in aqueous solution, particularly under acidic conditions, to sodium trimetaphosphate and sodium orthophosphate.

[edit] Uses

SHMP is used as a sequestrant and has applications with in a wide variety of industries, including as a food additive in which it is used under the E number E452i. Sodium carbonate is sometimes added to SHMP to raise the pH to 8.0-8.6, which produces a number of SHMP products used for water softening and detergents. Also used as a dispersing agent to break down clay and other soil types.

One of the lesser-known uses for sodium hexametaphosphate is as a deflocculant in the making of terra sigillata, a ceramic technique using a fine particled slip. The sodium hexametaphosphate causes the heavy particles in the slip to drop to the bottom allowing the fine particles to be siphoned off and applied to a green ware ceramic surface.

Sodium hexametaphosphate is also a whitening ingredient included in some whitening toothpastes and mouthwashes.^[3]

It can be prepared from Na₂HPO₃ and NaH₂PO₃.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] References

1. ^ Merck Index, 12th Edition, Sodium polymetaphosphate, 8814
2. ^ Van Wazer, John R. Phosphorus and its compounds. New York : Interscience Publishers (1958)
3. ^ Crest Vivid White Toothpaste

[edit] External links

• Occupational Health and Safety Agency for Healthcare in British Columbia
• Use of phosphates (including sodium hexametaphosphate) in industry